Reconstructing two millennia of copper and silver metallurgy in the Lake Titicaca region (Bolivia/Peru) using trace metals and lead isotopic composition

Copper, silver, and gold exploitation has been a foundation of economic socio-cultural development Andean societies, at least for the last three millennia. The main centers pre-colonial metallurgy are well-known from archeological artifacts, but temporal gaps inherent in this record handicap finer understanding modalities ore by succeeding civilizations. A continuous over time trace metals emitted during smelting operations make lake sediments excellent candidates to fill those gaps. Two millennia were reconstructed atmospherically derived together with lead (Pb) isotope ratios two dated sediment cores Lake Titicaca. first evidence is found apogee Tiwanaku state (AD 800–1150), higher copper (Cu) accumulation that can be attributed local Cu ores, based on Pb isotopic fingerprinting. During Late Intermediate Period 1150–1450), recorded peaks metal deposition persisted ? twenty years show mining activities intensive discontinuous. suggest diversified extractive activities, mainly located southern part central Altiplano. Finally, most intense epoch began Inca Empire (ca. AD 1500) lasted until end Colonial 1830), unprecedented interval. fingerprinting shows occurred Titicaca Potosi areas responsible emissions entire Altiplano, as evidenced other studies.